Artificial Intelligence Industry In China

The expert system market in the People’s Republic of China is a rapidly establishing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI advancement started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms stressing science and innovation as the nation’s main productive force.

The initial phases of China’s AI development were slow and experienced significant obstacles due to lack of resources and skill. At the beginning China lagged the majority of Western countries in regards to AI development. A majority of the research was led by scientists who had actually received greater education abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the federal government of individuals’s Republic of China has steadily developed a nationwide agenda for expert system development and emerged as one of the leading nations in expert system research study and advancement. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it aimed to become a worldwide AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “national AI groups” including fifteen China-based business, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each business ought to lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s fast AI development has actually substantially impacted Chinese society in numerous locations, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, accommodation and food services, and manufacturing are the leading markets that would be the most affected by additional AI release.

The private sector, university labs, and the military are working collaboratively in many aspects as there are couple of current existing borders. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its very first national law attending to AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade limitations intended to limit China’s access to innovative computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have actually been raised about the impacts of the Chinese government’s censorship program on the development of generative artificial intelligence and skill acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research study and advancement of expert system in China started in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the importance of science and innovation for China’s financial growth. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Expert system research and development did not begin until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was a lack of AI-related research between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is because of the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers released AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a generally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was hard so China’s government approached these obstacles by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and more offering federal government funds for research study tasks. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s first research publication on expert system was released by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, wise automation and intelligence have actually belonged to China’s nationwide innovation plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has even more broadened its research study and advancement funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research jobs has dramatically increased. [3] In 2006, China announced a policy priority for the development of expert system, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the same year, expert system was likewise mentioned in the eleventh five-year plan. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At very same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the greatest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of expert system. The very first award ceremony was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the first time the conference was kept in China. This event corresponded with the Chinese federal government’s announcement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a substantial turning point in China’s development of artificial intelligence. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China provided “A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the document, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council advised governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of expert system. Specifically, the strategy described AI as a strategic innovation that has become a “focus of international competitors”. [14]:2 The document urged significant investment in a variety of strategic locations connected to AI and required close cooperation between the state and personal sectors. On the occasion of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between financial and military ends is an essential element to being an excellent power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”expert system plus” was proposed to be raised to a tactical level. [16] The very same year saw the introduction of multiple application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research study laboratory in Nanjing, and presented their first AI expertise chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, released its very first artificial intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council allocated $2.1 billion for an AI industrial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to attain this the State Council stated the need for huge skill acquisition, theoretical and practical advancements, in addition to public and private financial investments. [14] Some of the stated inspirations that the State Council provided for pursuing its AI technique consist of the potential of artificial intelligence for commercial improvement, better social governance and maintaining social stability. [14] As of completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business throughout fundamental, technical, and application layers, with associated industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of artificial intelligence broadened to various fields such as quantum physics, geography, and research study. With the introduction of large language designs (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese researchers began developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big design called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system launched China’s first big scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly released the regulations worrying deepfakes, which became effective in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei released its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China released its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on standard generative AI services security requirements, consisting of requirements for data collection and model training was provided in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese government released its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and intends to build AI policy discussion with developing countries. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has revealed concern over AI security dangers, including abuse of data or making use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, started using news anchors developed with generative synthetic intelligence to deliver fake news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang released the AI+ Initiative, which plans to integrate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China announced that it presented a big language design trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market show 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in earnings over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd largest. The fourth and 5th biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI company 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had been approved by the Chinese federal government. [33]

Since 2024, numerous Chinese innovation companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have introduced AI video-generation tools to rival OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of significant AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Infotech

Government objectives

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the leading edge of AI innovation will be critical to the future of international military and financial power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make basic contributions to basic AI theory and to strengthen its location as a global leader in AI research. Further, the State Council intends for AI to become “the primary driving force for China’s industrial upgrading and financial transformation” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the worldwide leader in the advancement of artificial intelligence theory and innovation. The State Council declares that China will have established a “fully grown new-generation AI theory and innovation system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government “looks for to blend state planning and control while some functional flexibility for companies. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competitors through domestic market defenses, creating asymmetric benefits as they broaden offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy reaffirmed AI as a top research concern and ranks AI initially among “frontier markets” that the Chinese federal government intends to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a strategic sector frequently supported by China’s government guidance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI financing primarily concentrated on advanced and applied research. [38] The federal government funding also supported numerous AI R&D in the personal sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic firm research study showed that, while China is enormously investing in all elements of AI advancement, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous vehicles are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to nationwide guidance on developing China’s modern commercial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county selected as a speculative development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in speculative areas. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending on cities and regional industrial development and environment. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production market, heavily focuses on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI applications and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the leading reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a global competition for computer system vision systems. [41] Much of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic monitoring network. [42]

Interdisciplinary cooperations play a necessary function in China’s AI R&D, consisting of academic-corporate partnership, public-private partnerships, and global cooperations and projects with corporate-government partnerships are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the leading 3 worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the overall number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China surpassed the U.S. in 2020 in the total number of international AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI papers are mainly sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence launched the world’s largest pre-trained language design (WuDao). [44]

Since 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI researchers had actually completed their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese government has actually been proactive in regulating AI services and imposing obligations on AI business, the overall method to its policy is loose and shows a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI market. [28]:96 In July 2024, the federal government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s large population creates a massive amount of accessible information for companies and scientists, which offers an essential benefit in the race of huge information. As of 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s largest number of internet users, creating big amounts of information for maker learning and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial acknowledgment

Facial recognition is among the most widely employed AI applications in China. Collecting these large quantities of information from its residents assists further train and broaden AI capabilities. China’s market is not just favorable and valuable for corporations to additional AI R&D however likewise offers remarkable economic potential bring in both worldwide and domestic companies to join the AI market. The drastic development of the info and communication technology (ICT) industry and AI chipsets in the last few years are two examples of this. [47] China has actually become the world’s largest exporter of facial recognition innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and content controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft steps specifying that tech business will be bound to make sure AI-generated content upholds the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, avoids discrimination, appreciates intellectual home rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft procedures, companies bear legal obligation for training information and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese federal government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced content may not “prompt subversion of state power or the overthrowing of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a big language design to the public, companies should look for approval from the CAC to accredit that the model declines to respond to certain questions associating with political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions related to politically delicate topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh should be declined. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a company that preserves libraries consisting of training data sets typically utilized for large language designs. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, offers local companies with training data that CCP leaders consider permissible. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily launched a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has actually alerted that the Chinese federal government utilizes generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking discussions on dissentious political issues. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese artificial intelligence model DeepSeek has been reported to decline to respond to questions relating to aspects of the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most companies [who?] hold optimistic views about AI’s economic influence on China’s long-term economic development. In the past, traditional industries in China have actually battled with the increase in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the deployment of AI, functional costs are expected to lower while a boost in effectiveness creates income development. [60] Some highlight the significance of a clear policy and governmental support in order to overcome adoption barriers consisting of costs and absence of correctly trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income workers may be the most adversely affected by China’s AI development because of increasing needs for laborers with advanced abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic growth might be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related commercial advancement is focused in coastal areas instead of inland. [61]

An influential decision by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright security. [28]:98

Military impact

China seeks to build a “first-rate” military by “intelligentization” with a particular focus on making use of unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is investigating numerous types of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing cars. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial cars at an airshow. A media report launched later on showed a computer simulation of a similar swarm development finding and destroying a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications showed that China is likewise establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mainly affected by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense innovation and fears of a broadening “generational gap” in comparison to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military ideas, China aims to utilize AI for making use of large chests of intelligence, producing a common operating image, and speeding up battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s reaction to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) strategy, which seeks to integrate sensing units and weapons with AI and a vigorous network. [65] [66]

Twelve categories of military applications of AI have actually been determined: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software, decision assistance, software application, automated missile launch software, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI ecosystem contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In general, couple of limits exist between Chinese commercial companies, university lab, the military, and the main federal government. As a result, the Chinese government has a direct methods of directing AI advancement top priorities and accessing technology that was seemingly established for civilian purposes. To further reinforce these ties the Chinese government produced a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is meant to speed the transfer of AI innovation from industrial companies and research study institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower costs of data identifying to produce the large databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one quote, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the potential to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is purchasing the U.S. AI market, in business working on militarily appropriate AI applications, potentially giving it legal access to U.S. innovation and intellectual property. [69] Chinese venture capital investment in U.S. AI business between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration issued an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, “particularly those from rival or adversarial nations,” from buying U.S. innovation companies, due to U.S. nationwide security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese government has actually been investing, consisting of “microelectronics, synthetic intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced clean energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, researchers from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have established a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms stated was unauthorized due to its model usage restriction for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the first scholastic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, especially considering that China faces challenges in recruiting and retaining AI engineers and researchers. [21] Over half of the information researchers in the United States have been operating in the field for over ten years, while approximately the same proportion of data researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, less than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused professionals and research study products. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the variety of research study documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released papers, as evaluated by peer citations, ranked 34th globally. [75] China especially desire to deal with military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research, recently developed the first children’s curriculum in military AI in the world. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database maintained by an American thinktank, the portion increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical concerns

For the past years, there are conversations about AI security and ethical issues in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology released the very first national ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Artificial Intelligence Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with particular emphasis on user defense, data personal privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and fast technology adaptation by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that human beings shall remain completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the Beijing AI concepts calling for important requirements in long-term research study and preparation of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has actually been the most typical topic in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and many national federal governments have established legislation addressing data personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to address brand-new challenges raised by AI development. [80] [original research?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, setting up a regulatory structure categorizing all type of information collection and storage in China. [81] This implies all tech companies in China are required to categorize their data into classifications noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular standards on how to govern and deal with data transfers to other celebrations. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disputes associated with ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court by means of videoconference and AI assesses the evidence presented and uses pertinent legal standards. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based on fragmented judicial data can reach objective decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, teacher of law at the China University of Government and Law, writes that AI-technology companies may wear down judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing party leadership, political oversight, and decreasing the discretionary space of judges are intentional objectives of SCR [smart court reform]” [85]

Leading companies

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have actually received attention for facial acknowledgment, sound acknowledgment and drone technologies. [87]

China’s government takes a market-oriented technique to AI, and has sought to encourage private tech companies in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champs”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language design Hunyuan for business use on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI startups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were applauded by investors as China’s new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually also been promoted as a leading startup. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s commitment to global AI management and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically embedded causes of China’s anxiety towards securing an international technological dominance – China missed out on both commercial transformations, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that originated in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to make the most of the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital innovation including AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the national renewal proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

An article published by the Center for a Brand-new American Security concluded that “Chinese government authorities demonstrated extremely eager understanding of the problems surrounding AI and international security. This consists of knowledge of the U.S. AI policy conversations,” and suggested that “the U.S. policymaking neighborhood to likewise focus on cultivating know-how and understanding of AI advancements in China” and “financing, focus, and a desire amongst U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale required change.” [35] An article in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: “China might have exceptional resources and huge untapped capacity, however the West has world-leading competence and a strong research study culture. Instead of stress over China’s progress, it would be sensible for Western nations to focus on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research study and education. ” [91]

The Chinese federal government’s censorship program has actually stunted the development of generative artificial intelligence [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the development of AI develops obstacles for holistic national security, including the risks that AI will heighten social tensions or have destabilizing results on worldwide relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will cause higher injustice of employees and more major social problems. [28]:90 Gao cites how the advancement of AI has actually increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, leading to higher capital accumulation and political power in fewer financial stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state needs to be the primary responsible star in the location of generative AI (producing new material like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military usage of AI dangers intensifying military competitors in between nations and that the impact of AI in military matters will not be limited to one country but will have spillover effects. [28]:91

Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI professionals about the existential danger from expert system have happened. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is normally positive relating to AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study performed throughout 28 countries discovered that 78% of the Chinese public believes the advantages of AI outweigh the risks, the greatest of any country in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a survey of elite Chinese college student found that 80% concurred or strongly agreed that AI will do more excellent than harm for society, and 31% thought it needs to be regulated by the federal government. [93]

Human rights

The widely utilized AI facial acknowledgment has raised concerns. [94] According to The New York City Times, deployment of AI facial recognition technology in the Xinjiang area to find Uyghurs is “the first known example of a federal government purposefully using synthetic intelligence for racial profiling,” [95] which is stated to be “among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have discovered that in China, areas experiencing greater rates of discontent are connected with increased state acquisition of AI facial acknowledgment innovation, specifically by regional community authorities departments. [97] [98]

Artificial intelligence.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of artificial intelligence companies
Regulation of artificial intelligence

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.